diff --git a/cmds/core-service/main.go b/cmds/core-service/main.go
index 6b4026fda..91ee224b1 100644
--- a/cmds/core-service/main.go
+++ b/cmds/core-service/main.go
@@ -368,9 +368,9 @@ func RunHTTPServer(ctx context.Context, ctxCanceler func(), address, locality st
 	handler = authorizer.TokenMiddleware(handler)
 	handler = http.TimeoutHandler(handler, *timeout, "request timeout")
 	handler = logging.HTTPMiddleware(logger, *dumpRequests, handler)
-	handler = timestamp.RequestTimestampMiddleware(handler)
+	handler = timestamp.Middleware(handler)
 	handler = random.Middleware(handler)
-	handler = requestlocality.LocalityMiddleware(locality)(handler)
+	handler = requestlocality.Middleware(locality)(handler)
 
 	if *enableMetrics || *enableTracing {
 		// We use the default settings; the APIRouter handler will override the span value accordingly, as it has more information.
diff --git a/pkg/aux_/pool_participants.go b/pkg/aux_/pool_participants.go
index 8a00c9f1f..dae417936 100644
--- a/pkg/aux_/pool_participants.go
+++ b/pkg/aux_/pool_participants.go
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ func (a *Server) PutDSSInstancesHeartbeat(ctx context.Context, req *restapi.PutD
 		}
 		heartbeat.Timestamp = &ts
 	} else {
-		now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+		now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 		heartbeat.Timestamp = &now
 	}
 
diff --git a/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/dss.go b/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/dss.go
index ef90996f3..359beec9e 100644
--- a/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/dss.go
+++ b/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/dss.go
@@ -11,7 +11,7 @@ import (
 )
 
 func (r *repo) SaveOwnMetadata(ctx context.Context, loc string, publicEndpoint string) error {
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	r.state.Participants[locality(loc)] = &participant{
 		PublicEndpoint: publicEndpoint,
diff --git a/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/dss_test.go b/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/dss_test.go
index f39bcb248..4c9a730a4 100644
--- a/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/dss_test.go
+++ b/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/dss_test.go
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ var fakeClock = clockwork.NewFakeClock()
 
 func TestSaveOwnMetadataRoundTrip(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	r := newRepo()
 
 	require.NoError(t, r.SaveOwnMetadata(ctx, "dss-1", "https://example.com"))
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ func TestSaveOwnMetadataRoundTrip(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestSaveOwnMetadataUpsert(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	r := newRepo()
 
 	require.NoError(t, r.SaveOwnMetadata(ctx, "dss-1", "https://old.example.com"))
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ func TestSaveOwnMetadataUpsert(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestGetDSSMetadataPicksLatestHeartbeat(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	r := newRepo()
 
 	require.NoError(t, r.SaveOwnMetadata(ctx, "dss-1", "https://example.com"))
@@ -71,7 +71,7 @@ func TestGetDSSMetadataPicksLatestHeartbeat(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestGetDSSMetadataUpdatesHeartbeatPerSource(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	r := newRepo()
 
 	require.NoError(t, r.SaveOwnMetadata(ctx, "dss-1", "https://example.com"))
diff --git a/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/snapshot_test.go b/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/snapshot_test.go
index cd2f03a9f..1ff9015b4 100644
--- a/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/snapshot_test.go
+++ b/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/snapshot_test.go
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ import (
 
 func TestSnapshotRoundTrip(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	src := newRepo()
 	require.NoError(t, src.SaveOwnMetadata(ctx, "dss-1", "https://example.com"))
 	ts := time.Now().UTC()
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ func TestSnapshotRoundTrip(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestRestoreFromSnapshotReplacesState(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	src := newRepo()
 	require.NoError(t, src.SaveOwnMetadata(ctx, "dss-1", "https://example.com"))
 	data, err := src.GetSnapshot()
diff --git a/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/store_test.go b/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/store_test.go
index 1526efb04..70376edb3 100644
--- a/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/store_test.go
+++ b/pkg/aux_/store/memstore/store_test.go
@@ -10,7 +10,7 @@ import (
 
 func TestCheckpointRestore(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 
 	r := newRepo()
 
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ func TestCheckpointRestore(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestCheckpointIsolatesUpsert(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	r := newRepo()
 
 	require.NoError(t, r.SaveOwnMetadata(ctx, "dss-1", "https://old.example.com"))
diff --git a/pkg/aux_/store/raftstore/store.go b/pkg/aux_/store/raftstore/store.go
index 8f8a4270f..7b55231ed 100644
--- a/pkg/aux_/store/raftstore/store.go
+++ b/pkg/aux_/store/raftstore/store.go
@@ -24,8 +24,7 @@ const (
 // repo is a full implementation of aux_.repos.Repository for Raft-based storage.
 type repo struct {
 	consensus *consensus.Consensus
-	memStore  *memstore.Store[repos.Repository]
-	memRepo   repos.Repository
+	*memstore.Store[repos.Repository]
 }
 
 func Init(ctx context.Context, logger *zap.Logger, locality string) (*raftstore.Store[repos.Repository], error) {
@@ -39,7 +38,7 @@ func Init(ctx context.Context, logger *zap.Logger, locality string) (*raftstore.
 		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to initialize aux memstore")
 	}
 
-	r := &repo{memStore: memStore, memRepo: memStore.GetRepo()}
+	r := &repo{Store: memStore}
 	store, err := raftstore.Init(ctx, logger.With(zap.String("service", "aux_")), locality, params, r, nil)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to initialize aux raftstore")
@@ -52,14 +51,6 @@ func Init(ctx context.Context, logger *zap.Logger, locality string) (*raftstore.
 
 func (r *repo) GetRepo() repos.Repository { return r }
 
-func (r *repo) GetSnapshot() ([]byte, error) {
-	return r.memStore.GetSnapshot()
-}
-
-func (r *repo) RestoreFromSnapshot(data []byte) error {
-	return r.memStore.RestoreFromSnapshot(data)
-}
-
 func (r *repo) Apply(ctx context.Context, proposal consensus.Proposal) (any, error) {
 	switch proposal.RequestType {
 	case saveOwnMetadata:
@@ -68,10 +59,10 @@ func (r *repo) Apply(ctx context.Context, proposal consensus.Proposal) (any, err
 			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", saveOwnMetadata)
 		}
 
-		return nil, r.memRepo.SaveOwnMetadata(ctx, payload.Locality, payload.PublicEndpoint)
+		return nil, r.Store.GetRepo().SaveOwnMetadata(ctx, payload.Locality, payload.PublicEndpoint)
 
 	case getDSSMetadata:
-		return r.memRepo.GetDSSMetadata(ctx)
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().GetDSSMetadata(ctx)
 
 	case recordHeartbeat:
 		var heartbeat auxmodels.Heartbeat
@@ -79,7 +70,7 @@ func (r *repo) Apply(ctx context.Context, proposal consensus.Proposal) (any, err
 			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", recordHeartbeat)
 		}
 
-		return nil, r.memRepo.RecordHeartbeat(ctx, heartbeat)
+		return nil, r.Store.GetRepo().RecordHeartbeat(ctx, heartbeat)
 
 	default:
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unknown request type: %q", proposal.RequestType)
diff --git a/pkg/errors/errors.go b/pkg/errors/errors.go
index f525e3b90..ccf10b2aa 100644
--- a/pkg/errors/errors.go
+++ b/pkg/errors/errors.go
@@ -16,10 +16,6 @@ const (
 	// larger than the max area allowed. See geo/s2.go.
 	AreaTooLarge = stacktrace.ErrorCode(iota)
 
-	// MissingOVNs is the error to signal that an AirspaceConflictResponse should
-	// be returned rather than the standard error response.
-	MissingOVNs
-
 	// AlreadyExists is used when attempting to create a resource that already
 	// exists.
 	AlreadyExists
diff --git a/pkg/locality/locality.go b/pkg/locality/locality.go
index 8ea51faa8..6e1454c85 100644
--- a/pkg/locality/locality.go
+++ b/pkg/locality/locality.go
@@ -7,12 +7,12 @@ import (
 	"github.com/interuss/stacktrace"
 )
 
-type localityKey struct{}
+type key struct{}
 
-// MustGetRequestLocality returns the request locality from the context and panics if it is not
+// MustFromContext returns the request locality from the context and panics if it is not
 // present, which is a programming error.
-func MustGetRequestLocality(ctx context.Context) string {
-	locality, ok := ctx.Value(localityKey{}).(string)
+func MustFromContext(ctx context.Context) string {
+	locality, ok := ctx.Value(key{}).(string)
 	if !ok {
 		panic(stacktrace.NewError("request locality not present in context"))
 	}
@@ -20,17 +20,17 @@ func MustGetRequestLocality(ctx context.Context) string {
 	return locality
 }
 
-// WithRequestLocality returns a new context with the given locality.
-func WithRequestLocality(ctx context.Context, locality string) context.Context {
-	return context.WithValue(ctx, localityKey{}, locality)
+// NewContext returns a new context with the given locality.
+func NewContext(ctx context.Context, locality string) context.Context {
+	return context.WithValue(ctx, key{}, locality)
 }
 
-// LocalityMiddleware is an HTTP middleware that stamps each incoming request with this
+// Middleware is an HTTP middleware that stamps each incoming request with this
 // DSS instance's locality so that locality-dependent operations execute deterministically across nodes.
-func LocalityMiddleware(locality string) func(http.Handler) http.Handler {
+func Middleware(locality string) func(http.Handler) http.Handler {
 	return func(next http.Handler) http.Handler {
 		return http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
-			next.ServeHTTP(w, r.WithContext(WithRequestLocality(r.Context(), locality)))
+			next.ServeHTTP(w, r.WithContext(NewContext(r.Context(), locality)))
 		})
 	}
 }
diff --git a/pkg/models/geo.go b/pkg/models/geo.go
index f52c5ae0d..df7fc3059 100644
--- a/pkg/models/geo.go
+++ b/pkg/models/geo.go
@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 package models
 
 import (
+	"encoding/json"
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/golang/geo/s2"
@@ -46,6 +47,83 @@ type Volume3D struct {
 	Footprint Geometry
 }
 
+type Volume3DJSON struct {
+	AltitudeHi *float32      `json:"altitude_hi,omitempty"`
+	AltitudeLo *float32      `json:"altitude_lo,omitempty"`
+	Footprint  *geometryJSON `json:"footprint,omitempty"`
+}
+
+type geometryType string
+
+const (
+	circle  geometryType = "circle"
+	polygon geometryType = "polygon"
+	cells   geometryType = "cells"
+)
+
+// geometryJSON is a helper struct for marshaling and unmarshaling Geometry types to/from JSON.
+type geometryJSON struct {
+	Type    geometryType `json:"type"`
+	Polygon *GeoPolygon  `json:"polygon,omitempty"`
+	Circle  *GeoCircle   `json:"circle,omitempty"`
+	Cells   []s2.CellID  `json:"cells,omitempty"`
+}
+
+func (v Volume3D) MarshalJSON() ([]byte, error) {
+	w := Volume3DJSON{AltitudeHi: v.AltitudeHi, AltitudeLo: v.AltitudeLo}
+	if v.Footprint != nil {
+		switch f := v.Footprint.(type) {
+		case *GeoPolygon:
+			w.Footprint = &geometryJSON{Type: polygon, Polygon: f}
+
+		case *GeoCircle:
+			w.Footprint = &geometryJSON{Type: circle, Circle: f}
+
+		case precomputedCellGeometry:
+			cellsResult := make([]s2.CellID, 0, len(f))
+			for id := range f {
+				cellsResult = append(cellsResult, id)
+			}
+			w.Footprint = &geometryJSON{Type: cells, Cells: cellsResult}
+
+		default:
+			return nil, stacktrace.NewError("Volume3D: unsupported Footprint type %T for JSON marshaling", v.Footprint)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return json.Marshal(w)
+}
+
+func (v *Volume3D) UnmarshalJSON(data []byte) error {
+	var w Volume3DJSON
+	if err := json.Unmarshal(data, &w); err != nil {
+		return err
+	}
+	v.AltitudeHi = w.AltitudeHi
+	v.AltitudeLo = w.AltitudeLo
+	if w.Footprint != nil {
+		switch w.Footprint.Type {
+		case polygon:
+			v.Footprint = w.Footprint.Polygon
+
+		case circle:
+			v.Footprint = w.Footprint.Circle
+
+		case cells:
+			pcg := make(precomputedCellGeometry, len(w.Footprint.Cells))
+			for _, id := range w.Footprint.Cells {
+				pcg[id] = struct{}{}
+			}
+
+			v.Footprint = pcg
+		default:
+			return stacktrace.NewError("Volume3D: unknown geometry type %q", w.Footprint.Type)
+		}
+	}
+
+	return nil
+}
+
 // Geometry models a geometry.
 type Geometry interface {
 	// CalculateCovering returns an s2 cell covering for a geometry.
diff --git a/pkg/raftstore/consensus/proposal.go b/pkg/raftstore/consensus/proposal.go
index bb63fda74..332a842e8 100644
--- a/pkg/raftstore/consensus/proposal.go
+++ b/pkg/raftstore/consensus/proposal.go
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ type Proposal struct {
 }
 
 func (c *Consensus) newProposal(ctx context.Context, requestType RequestType, value []byte, readOnly bool) Proposal {
-	timestamp := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	timestamp := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 	seed := random.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	return Proposal{
diff --git a/pkg/raftstore/store.go b/pkg/raftstore/store.go
index a17c00827..436f4bf8f 100644
--- a/pkg/raftstore/store.go
+++ b/pkg/raftstore/store.go
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ import (
 
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/locality"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/logging"
+	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/memstore"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/raftstore/consensus"
 	raftparams "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/raftstore/params"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/random"
@@ -15,19 +16,12 @@ import (
 )
 
 type RaftRepo[R any] interface {
-	GetRepo() R
+	memstore.MemRepo[R]
+
 	// Apply is called on every committed entry. The proposal must be applied atomically.
 	// The any return mirrors store.OperationHandler.Execute: different requests yield different
 	// concrete result types. Callers recover the type via store.TransactWithResult.
 	Apply(ctx context.Context, proposal consensus.Proposal) (any, error)
-
-	// GetSnapshot returns a serialized view of current state, suitable
-	// for restoring via RestoreFromSnapshot.
-	GetSnapshot() ([]byte, error)
-
-	// RestoreFromSnapshot replaces all state with the snapshot in data.
-	// data is always the output of a prior GetSnapshot.
-	RestoreFromSnapshot(data []byte) error
 }
 
 type Store[R any] struct {
@@ -116,10 +110,15 @@ func (s *Store[R]) processCommits(ctx context.Context, commitCh <-chan consensus
 				continue
 			}
 
-			proposalCtx := timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, commit.Prop.Timestamp)
-			proposalCtx = locality.WithRequestLocality(proposalCtx, commit.Prop.Locality)
+			proposalCtx := timestamp.NewContext(ctx, commit.Prop.Timestamp)
+			proposalCtx = locality.NewContext(proposalCtx, commit.Prop.Locality)
 			proposalCtx = random.NewContext(proposalCtx, commit.Prop.Seed)
+			s.raftRepo.Checkpoint()
 			result, err := s.raftRepo.Apply(proposalCtx, commit.Prop)
+			if err != nil {
+				s.logger.Warn("failed to apply proposal, rolling back", zap.String("proposal_id", commit.Prop.ID), zap.String("proposal_type", string(commit.Prop.RequestType)), zap.Error(err))
+				s.raftRepo.Restore()
+			}
 			commit.Done <- consensus.ProposalResult{Result: result, Error: err}
 		}
 	}
diff --git a/pkg/rid/actions/registry.go b/pkg/rid/operations/registry.go
similarity index 92%
rename from pkg/rid/actions/registry.go
rename to pkg/rid/operations/registry.go
index 2cd22af51..989928349 100644
--- a/pkg/rid/actions/registry.go
+++ b/pkg/rid/operations/registry.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-package actions
+package operations
 
 import (
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/rid/repos"
diff --git a/pkg/rid/actions/subscription.go b/pkg/rid/operations/subscription.go
similarity index 94%
rename from pkg/rid/actions/subscription.go
rename to pkg/rid/operations/subscription.go
index e3537b402..dee5fac7e 100644
--- a/pkg/rid/actions/subscription.go
+++ b/pkg/rid/operations/subscription.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-package actions
+package operations
 
 import (
 	"context"
@@ -16,16 +16,16 @@ func init() {
 	Registry[ridv1.DeleteSubscriptionOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*ridv1.DeleteSubscriptionRequest],
-		Execute: ExecuteDeleteSubscription,
+		Execute: executeDeleteSubscription,
 	}
 	Registry[ridv2.DeleteSubscriptionOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*ridv2.DeleteSubscriptionRequest],
-		Execute: ExecuteDeleteSubscription,
+		Execute: executeDeleteSubscription,
 	}
 }
 
-func ExecuteDeleteSubscription(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeDeleteSubscription(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	var (
 		rawID      string
 		rawVersion string
diff --git a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/identification_service_area.go b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/identification_service_area.go
index bf7bb042b..02976cc69 100644
--- a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/identification_service_area.go
+++ b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/identification_service_area.go
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ func (r *repo) InsertISA(ctx context.Context, isa *ridmodels.IdentificationServi
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("ISA with id %s already exists", isa.ID)
 	}
 
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	rec := isaRecordFromModel(isa, now)
 	r.state.ISAs[isa.ID] = rec
@@ -77,7 +77,7 @@ func (r *repo) UpdateISA(ctx context.Context, isa *ridmodels.IdentificationServi
 		return nil, nil
 	}
 
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	rec := isaRecordFromModel(isa, now)
 	rec.Owner = prev.Owner // It's not possible to update the owner of an ISA, this ensure it's to changed to a new value.
diff --git a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/identification_service_area_test.go b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/identification_service_area_test.go
index f6baa8dbf..a9bb4b34f 100644
--- a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/identification_service_area_test.go
+++ b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/identification_service_area_test.go
@@ -34,7 +34,7 @@ var (
 
 func TestStoreSearchISAs(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	cells := s2.CellUnion{
 		s2.CellID(17106221850767130624),
 		s2.CellID(17106221885126868992),
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ func TestStoreSearchISAs(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestBadVersion(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	saOut1, err := repo.InsertISA(ctx, serviceArea)
@@ -159,7 +159,7 @@ func TestBadVersion(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestStoreExpiredISA(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	saOut, err := repo.InsertISA(ctx, serviceArea)
@@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ func TestStoreExpiredISA(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestStoreDeleteISAs(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	// Insert the ISA.
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ func TestStoreDeleteISAs(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestStoreISAWithNoGeoData(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	endTime := fakeClock.Now().Add(24 * time.Hour)
@@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ func TestStoreISAWithNoGeoData(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestListExpiredISAs(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	// Insert ISA with endtime 1 day from now
@@ -261,7 +261,7 @@ func TestListExpiredISAs(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestListExpiredISAsWithEmptyWriter(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	// Insert ISA with endtime 1 day from now
@@ -294,7 +294,7 @@ func TestListExpiredISAsWithEmptyWriter(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestStoreCountISAs(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	// Insert the ISA.
diff --git a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/snapshot_test.go b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/snapshot_test.go
index a795d5f5f..50fc5423d 100644
--- a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/snapshot_test.go
+++ b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/snapshot_test.go
@@ -15,7 +15,7 @@ import (
 
 func TestSnapshotRoundTrip(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	src := setUpStore(t)
 	_, err := src.InsertISA(ctx, serviceArea)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ func TestSnapshotRoundTrip(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestRestoreFromSnapshotReplacesState(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	src := setUpStore(t)
 	_, err := src.InsertISA(ctx, serviceArea)
 	require.NoError(t, err)
diff --git a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/store_test.go b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/store_test.go
index 62752a537..55d13081f 100644
--- a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/store_test.go
+++ b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/store_test.go
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ func setUpStore(t *testing.T) *repo {
 
 func TestDatabaseEnsuresBeginsBeforeExpires(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	var (
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ func TestDatabaseEnsuresBeginsBeforeExpires(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestCheckpointRestoreISA(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	_, err := repo.InsertISA(ctx, serviceArea)
@@ -76,7 +76,7 @@ func TestCheckpointRestoreISA(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestCheckpointIsolatesNotificationIndex(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	sub, err := repo.InsertSubscription(ctx, subscriptionsPool[0].input)
diff --git a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/subscriptions.go b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/subscriptions.go
index 63cb22c09..f5a7bffdb 100644
--- a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/subscriptions.go
+++ b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/subscriptions.go
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ func (r *repo) InsertSubscription(ctx context.Context, s *ridmodels.Subscription
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("Subscription with id %s already exists", s.ID)
 	}
 
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	rec := subRecordFromModel(s, now)
 	r.state.Subscriptions[s.ID] = rec
@@ -83,7 +83,7 @@ func (r *repo) UpdateSubscription(ctx context.Context, s *ridmodels.Subscription
 		return nil, nil
 	}
 
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	rec := subRecordFromModel(s, now)
 	rec.Owner = prev.Owner // It's not possible to update the owner of a subscription, this ensure it's to changed to a new value.
@@ -137,7 +137,7 @@ func (r *repo) searchSubscriptions(ctx context.Context, cells s2.CellUnion, owne
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.BadRequest, "no location provided")
 	}
 
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	var out []*ridmodels.Subscription
 	for rec := range r.liveSubscriptionsInCells(now, cells, owner) {
@@ -154,7 +154,7 @@ func (r *repo) searchSubscriptions(ctx context.Context, cells s2.CellUnion, owne
 // subscription in the given cells.
 func (r *repo) UpdateNotificationIdxsInCells(ctx context.Context, cells s2.CellUnion) ([]*ridmodels.Subscription, error) {
 
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	var out []*ridmodels.Subscription
 	for rec := range r.liveSubscriptionsInCells(now, cells, nil) {
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ func (r *repo) UpdateNotificationIdxsInCells(ctx context.Context, cells s2.CellU
 
 func (r *repo) MaxSubscriptionCountInCellsByOwner(ctx context.Context, cells s2.CellUnion, owner dssmodels.Owner) (int, error) {
 
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	want := cellSet(cells)
 	counts := make(map[s2.CellID]int, len(cells))
diff --git a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/subscriptions_test.go b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/subscriptions_test.go
index 1d61cf707..993aaeff8 100644
--- a/pkg/rid/store/memstore/subscriptions_test.go
+++ b/pkg/rid/store/memstore/subscriptions_test.go
@@ -70,7 +70,7 @@ var (
 
 func TestStoreGetSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	for _, r := range subscriptionsPool {
@@ -90,7 +90,7 @@ func TestStoreGetSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestStoreInsertSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	for _, r := range subscriptionsPool {
@@ -134,7 +134,7 @@ func TestStoreInsertSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestStoreDeleteSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	for _, r := range subscriptionsPool {
@@ -162,7 +162,7 @@ func TestStoreDeleteSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestStoreSearchSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now().UTC())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now().UTC())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	var (
@@ -207,7 +207,7 @@ func TestStoreSearchSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestStoreExpiredSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	endTime := fakeClock.Now().Add(24 * time.Hour)
@@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ func TestStoreExpiredSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NoError(t, err)
 
 	// The subscription's endTime is 24 hours from now.
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now().Add(23*time.Hour))
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now().Add(23*time.Hour))
 
 	// We should still be able to find the subscription by searching and by ID.
 	subs, err := repo.SearchSubscriptionsByOwner(ctx, sub.Cells, "original owner")
@@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ func TestStoreExpiredSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 	require.NotNil(t, &ret)
 
 	// But now the subscription has expired.
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now().Add(25*time.Hour))
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now().Add(25*time.Hour))
 
 	subs, err = repo.SearchSubscriptionsByOwner(ctx, sub.Cells, "original owner")
 	require.NoError(t, err)
@@ -246,7 +246,7 @@ func TestStoreExpiredSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestStoreSubscriptionWithNoGeoData(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	endTime := fakeClock.Now().Add(24 * time.Hour)
@@ -261,7 +261,7 @@ func TestStoreSubscriptionWithNoGeoData(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestMaxSubscriptionCountInCellsByOwner(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	for _, s := range subscriptionsPool {
@@ -276,7 +276,7 @@ func TestMaxSubscriptionCountInCellsByOwner(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestListExpiredSubscriptions(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	fakeClock := clockwork.NewFakeClockAt(time.Now())
@@ -309,7 +309,7 @@ func TestListExpiredSubscriptions(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestListExpiredSubscriptionsWithEmptyWriter(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	// Insert Subscription with endtime 1 day from now
@@ -342,7 +342,7 @@ func TestListExpiredSubscriptionsWithEmptyWriter(t *testing.T) {
 
 func TestStoreCountSubscription(t *testing.T) {
 	ctx := context.Background()
-	ctx = timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
+	ctx = timestamp.NewContext(ctx, fakeClock.Now())
 	repo := setUpStore(t)
 
 	for _, r := range subscriptionsPool {
diff --git a/pkg/rid/store/raftstore/store.go b/pkg/rid/store/raftstore/store.go
index 6dabdecf7..cfbf6dd51 100644
--- a/pkg/rid/store/raftstore/store.go
+++ b/pkg/rid/store/raftstore/store.go
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/memstore"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/raftstore"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/raftstore/consensus"
-	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/rid/actions"
+	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/rid/operations"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/rid/repos"
 	ridmemstore "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/rid/store/memstore"
 	ridraftparams "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/rid/store/raftstore/params"
@@ -17,8 +17,7 @@ import (
 // repo is a full implementation of rid.repos.Repository for Raft-based storage.
 type repo struct {
 	consensus *consensus.Consensus
-	memStore  *memstore.Store[repos.Repository]
-	memRepo   repos.Repository
+	*memstore.Store[repos.Repository]
 }
 
 func Init(ctx context.Context, logger *zap.Logger, locality string) (*raftstore.Store[repos.Repository], error) {
@@ -32,8 +31,8 @@ func Init(ctx context.Context, logger *zap.Logger, locality string) (*raftstore.
 		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to initialize rid memstore")
 	}
 
-	r := &repo{memStore: memStore, memRepo: memStore.GetRepo()}
-	store, err := raftstore.Init(ctx, logger.With(zap.String("service", "rid")), locality, params, r, actions.Registry)
+	r := &repo{Store: memStore}
+	store, err := raftstore.Init(ctx, logger.With(zap.String("service", "rid")), locality, params, r, operations.Registry)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to initialize rid raftstore")
 	}
@@ -45,19 +44,11 @@ func Init(ctx context.Context, logger *zap.Logger, locality string) (*raftstore.
 
 func (r *repo) GetRepo() repos.Repository { return r }
 
-func (r *repo) GetSnapshot() ([]byte, error) {
-	return r.memStore.GetSnapshot()
-}
-
-func (r *repo) RestoreFromSnapshot(data []byte) error {
-	return r.memStore.RestoreFromSnapshot(data)
-}
-
 func (r *repo) Apply(ctx context.Context, proposal consensus.Proposal) (any, error) {
 	switch proposal.RequestType {
 
 	default:
-		handler, ok := actions.Registry[string(proposal.RequestType)]
+		handler, ok := operations.Registry[string(proposal.RequestType)]
 		if !ok {
 			return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unrecognized request type: %s", proposal.RequestType)
 		}
@@ -67,6 +58,6 @@ func (r *repo) Apply(ctx context.Context, proposal consensus.Proposal) (any, err
 			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to decode %s payload", proposal.RequestType)
 		}
 
-		return handler.Execute(ctx, r.memRepo, request)
+		return handler.Execute(ctx, r.Store.GetRepo(), request)
 	}
 }
diff --git a/pkg/rid/store/sqlstore/store.go b/pkg/rid/store/sqlstore/store.go
index 20bb2e026..e51eb1662 100644
--- a/pkg/rid/store/sqlstore/store.go
+++ b/pkg/rid/store/sqlstore/store.go
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ import (
 	dssql "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/sql"
 
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/logging"
-	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/rid/actions"
+	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/rid/operations"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/rid/repos"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/sqlstore"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/store/params"
@@ -45,6 +45,6 @@ func Init(ctx context.Context, logger *zap.Logger, withCheckCron bool) (*sqlstor
 				timeBasedNotificationIndex: opts.TimeBasedNotificationIndex,
 			}
 		},
-		Registry: actions.Registry,
+		Registry: operations.Registry,
 	}, withCheckCron)
 }
diff --git a/pkg/scd/constraints_handler.go b/pkg/scd/constraints_handler.go
index 055502e72..692a5405c 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/constraints_handler.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/constraints_handler.go
@@ -7,8 +7,8 @@ import (
 	restapi "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/api/scdv1"
 	dsserr "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/errors"
 	dssmodels "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/models"
-	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/actions"
 	scdmodels "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/models"
+	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/operations"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/repos"
 	dssstore "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/store"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/timestamp"
@@ -168,7 +168,7 @@ func (a *Server) UpdateConstraintReference(ctx context.Context, req *restapi.Upd
 // validateConstraintUpsertRequest performs the request validation that can be done ahead of the transaction.
 // Note that this does NOT check for anything related to access controls: any error returned should be labeled as a dsserr.BadRequest.
 func validateConstraintUpsertRequest(ctx context.Context, entityid restapi.EntityID, params *restapi.PutConstraintReferenceParameters, allowHTTPBaseUrls bool) error {
-	_, err := actions.ValidateAndReturnConstraintUpsertParams(timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx), entityid, params)
+	_, err := operations.ValidateAndReturnConstraintUpsertParams(timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx), entityid, params)
 	if err != nil {
 		return err
 	}
diff --git a/pkg/scd/operational_intents_handler.go b/pkg/scd/operational_intents_handler.go
index 3e8cce828..8e00f28f9 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/operational_intents_handler.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/operational_intents_handler.go
@@ -2,16 +2,16 @@ package scd
 
 import (
 	"context"
-	"time"
 
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/api"
 	restapi "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/api/scdv1"
 	dsserr "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/errors"
 	dssmodels "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/models"
-	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/actions"
 	scdmodels "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/models"
+	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/operations"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/repos"
 	dssstore "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/store"
+	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/timestamp"
 	"github.com/interuss/stacktrace"
 )
 
@@ -138,8 +138,18 @@ func (a *Server) CreateOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, req *rest
 		return restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response400: &restapi.ErrorResponse{
 			Message: dsserr.Handle(ctx, stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(req.BodyParseError, dsserr.BadRequest, "Malformed params"))}}
 	}
+	validParams, err := operations.ValidateAndReturnOIRUpsertParams(timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx), req.Entityid, "", req.Body, a.AllowHTTPBaseUrls)
+	if err != nil {
+		return restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response400: &restapi.ErrorResponse{
+			Message: dsserr.Handle(ctx, stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(err, dsserr.BadRequest, "Failed to validate Operational Intent Reference upsert parameters"))}}
+	}
+	_, err = operations.CheckUpsertPermissionsAndReturnManager(&req.Auth, validParams.State)
+	if err != nil {
+		return restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response403: &restapi.ErrorResponse{
+			Message: dsserr.Handle(ctx, stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(err, dsserr.PermissionDenied, "Caller is not allowed to upsert with the requested state"))}}
+	}
 
-	respOK, respConflict, err := a.upsertOperationalIntentReference(ctx, time.Now(), &req.Auth, req.Entityid, "", req.Body)
+	result, err := dssstore.TransactWithResult[repos.Repository, *operations.PutOperationalIntentReferenceResult](ctx, a.Store, req)
 	if err != nil {
 		err = stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Could not put Operational Intent Reference")
 		errResp := &restapi.ErrorResponse{Message: dsserr.Handle(ctx, err)}
@@ -151,15 +161,17 @@ func (a *Server) CreateOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, req *rest
 		case dsserr.VersionMismatch:
 			return restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response409: &restapi.AirspaceConflictResponse{
 				Message: dsserr.Handle(ctx, err)}}
-		case dsserr.MissingOVNs:
-			return restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response409: respConflict}
 		default:
 			return restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response500: &api.InternalServerErrorBody{
 				ErrorMessage: *dsserr.Handle(ctx, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Got an unexpected error"))}}
 		}
 	}
 
-	return restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response201: respOK}
+	if result.Conflict != nil {
+		return restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response409: result.Conflict}
+	}
+
+	return restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response201: result.Response}
 }
 
 func (a *Server) UpdateOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, req *restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceRequest,
@@ -169,10 +181,20 @@ func (a *Server) UpdateOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, req *rest
 		return restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response400: &restapi.ErrorResponse{
 			Message: dsserr.Handle(ctx, stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(req.BodyParseError, dsserr.BadRequest, "Malformed params"))}}
 	}
+	validParams, err := operations.ValidateAndReturnOIRUpsertParams(timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx), req.Entityid, req.Ovn, req.Body, a.AllowHTTPBaseUrls)
+	if err != nil {
+		return restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response400: &restapi.ErrorResponse{
+			Message: dsserr.Handle(ctx, stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(err, dsserr.BadRequest, "Failed to validate Operational Intent Reference upsert parameters"))}}
+	}
+	_, err = operations.CheckUpsertPermissionsAndReturnManager(&req.Auth, validParams.State)
+	if err != nil {
+		return restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response403: &restapi.ErrorResponse{
+			Message: dsserr.Handle(ctx, stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(err, dsserr.PermissionDenied, "Caller is not allowed to upsert with the requested state"))}}
+	}
 
-	respOK, respConflict, err := a.upsertOperationalIntentReference(ctx, time.Now(), &req.Auth, req.Entityid, req.Ovn, req.Body)
+	result, err := dssstore.TransactWithResult[repos.Repository, *operations.PutOperationalIntentReferenceResult](ctx, a.Store, req)
 	if err != nil {
-		err = stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Could not put subscription")
+		err = stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Could not put Operational Intent Reference")
 		errResp := &restapi.ErrorResponse{Message: dsserr.Handle(ctx, err)}
 		switch stacktrace.GetCode(err) {
 		case dsserr.PermissionDenied:
@@ -182,196 +204,15 @@ func (a *Server) UpdateOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, req *rest
 		case dsserr.VersionMismatch:
 			return restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response409: &restapi.AirspaceConflictResponse{
 				Message: dsserr.Handle(ctx, err)}}
-		case dsserr.MissingOVNs:
-			return restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response409: respConflict}
 		default:
 			return restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response500: &api.InternalServerErrorBody{
 				ErrorMessage: *dsserr.Handle(ctx, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Got an unexpected error"))}}
 		}
 	}
 
-	return restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response200: respOK}
-}
-
-// upsertOperationalIntentReference inserts or updates an Operational Intent.
-// If the ovn argument is empty (""), it will attempt to create a new Operational Intent.
-func (a *Server) upsertOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, now time.Time, authorizedManager *api.AuthorizationResult, entityid restapi.EntityID, ovn restapi.EntityOVN, params *restapi.PutOperationalIntentReferenceParameters,
-) (*restapi.ChangeOperationalIntentReferenceResponse, *restapi.AirspaceConflictResponse, error) {
-	// Note: validateAndReturnOIRUpsertParams and checkUpsertPermissionsAndReturnManager could be moved out of this method and only the valid params passed,
-	// but this requires some changes in the caller that go beyond the immediate scope of #1088 and can be done later.
-	validParams, err := actions.ValidateAndReturnOIRUpsertParams(now, entityid, ovn, params, a.AllowHTTPBaseUrls)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, nil, stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(err, dsserr.BadRequest, "Failed to validate Operational Intent Reference upsert parameters")
-	}
-	manager, err := actions.CheckUpsertPermissionsAndReturnManager(authorizedManager, validParams.State)
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, nil, stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(err, dsserr.PermissionDenied, "Caller is not allowed to upsert with the requested state")
-	}
-
-	var responseOK *restapi.ChangeOperationalIntentReferenceResponse
-	var responseConflict *restapi.AirspaceConflictResponse
-	action := func(ctx context.Context, r repos.Repository) (err error) {
-
-		// Get existing OperationalIntent, if any
-		old, err := r.GetOperationalIntent(ctx, validParams.ID)
-		if err != nil {
-			return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Could not get OperationalIntent from repo")
-		}
-
-		// Lock subscriptions based on the cell and subscriptions we're going to use
-		// to reduce the number of retries under concurrent load.
-		// See issue #1002 for details.
-		var subscriptionIds = make([]dssmodels.ID, 0)
-
-		if old != nil && old.SubscriptionID != nil {
-			subscriptionIds = append(subscriptionIds, *old.SubscriptionID)
-		}
-
-		if !validParams.SubscriptionID.Empty() {
-			subscriptionIds = append(subscriptionIds, validParams.SubscriptionID)
-		}
-
-		err = r.LockSubscriptionsOnCells(ctx, validParams.Cells, subscriptionIds, validParams.UExtent.StartTime, validParams.UExtent.EndTime)
-		if err != nil {
-			return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Unable to acquire lock")
-		}
-
-		// Validate the request against the previous OIR
-		if err := actions.ValidateUpsertRequestAgainstPreviousOIR(manager, validParams.OVN, old); err != nil {
-			return stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(err, stacktrace.GetCode(err), "Request validation failed")
-		}
-
-		var (
-			version     = scdmodels.VersionNumber(1)
-			pastOVNs    = make([]scdmodels.OVN, 0)
-			previousSub *scdmodels.Subscription
-		)
-		if old != nil {
-			version = old.Version + 1
-			pastOVNs = append(old.PastOVNs, validParams.OVN)
-
-			// Fetch the previous OIR's subscription if it exists
-			if old.SubscriptionID != nil {
-				previousSub, err = r.GetSubscription(ctx, *old.SubscriptionID)
-				if err != nil {
-					return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Unable to get OperationalIntent's Subscription from repo")
-				}
-			}
-		}
-
-		// Determine if the previous subscription is being replaced and if it will need to be cleaned up
-		previousSubIsBeingReplaced := previousSub != nil && validParams.SubscriptionID != previousSub.ID
-		removePreviousImplicitSubscription := false
-		if previousSubIsBeingReplaced {
-			removePreviousImplicitSubscription, err = actions.SubscriptionIsImplicitAndOnlyAttachedToOIR(ctx, r, validParams.ID, previousSub)
-			if err != nil {
-				return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Could not determine if previous Subscription can be removed")
-			}
-		}
-
-		// attachedSub is the subscription that will end up being attached to the OIR
-		// it defaults to the previous subscription (which may be nil), and may be updated if required by the parameters
-		attachedSub := previousSub
-		if validParams.SubscriptionID.Empty() {
-			// No subscription ID was provided:
-			// check if an implicit subscription should be created, otherwise do nothing
-			if validParams.ImplicitSubscription.Requested {
-				// Parameters for a new implicit subscription have been passed: we will create
-				// a new implicit subscription even if another subscription was attached to this OIR before,
-				// regardless of whether it was an implicit subscription or not.
-				if attachedSub, err = actions.CreateAndStoreNewImplicitSubscription(ctx, r, manager, validParams); err != nil {
-					return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to create implicit subscription")
-				}
-			} else {
-				// If no subscription ID is provided and no implicit subscription is requested,
-				// the OIR should have no attached subscription
-				attachedSub = nil
-			}
-		} else {
-			// Attempt to rely on the specified subscription
-			// If it is different from the previous subscription, we need to fetch it from the store
-			// in order to ensure it correctly covers the OIR.
-			// We do the check below in order to avoid re-fetching the subscription if it has not changed
-			if attachedSub == nil || previousSubIsBeingReplaced {
-				attachedSub, err = r.GetSubscription(ctx, validParams.SubscriptionID)
-				if err != nil {
-					return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Unable to get requested Subscription from store")
-				}
-				if attachedSub == nil {
-					return stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.BadRequest, "Specified Subscription %s does not exist", validParams.SubscriptionID)
-				}
-			}
-
-			// We need to confirm that it is owned by the calling manager
-			if attachedSub.Manager != manager {
-				return stacktrace.Propagate(
-					// We do a bit of wrapping gymnastics because the root error message will be sent in the response,
-					// and we don't want to include the effective manager in there.
-					stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(
-						dsserr.PermissionDenied, "Specificed Subscription is owned by different client"),
-					// The propagation message will end in the logs and help with debugging.
-					"Subscription %s owned by %s, but %s attempted to use it for an OperationalIntent",
-					validParams.SubscriptionID,
-					attachedSub.Manager,
-					manager,
-				)
-			}
-
-			// We need to ensure the subscription covers the OIR's geo-temporal extent
-			attachedSub, err = actions.EnsureSubscriptionCoversOIR(ctx, r, attachedSub, validParams)
-			if err != nil {
-				return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to ensure subscription covers OIR")
-			}
-		}
-
-		if validParams.State.RequiresKey() {
-			responseConflict, err = actions.ValidateKeyAndProvideConflictResponse(ctx, r, manager, validParams, attachedSub)
-			if err != nil {
-				return stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(err, stacktrace.GetCode(err), "Failed to validate key")
-			}
-		}
-
-		// Construct the new OperationalIntent
-		op := validParams.ToOIR(manager, attachedSub, version, pastOVNs)
-
-		// Upsert the OperationalIntent
-		op, err = r.UpsertOperationalIntent(ctx, op)
-		if err != nil {
-			return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to upsert OperationalIntent in repo")
-		}
-
-		// Check if the previously attached subscription should be removed
-		if removePreviousImplicitSubscription {
-			err = r.DeleteSubscription(ctx, previousSub.ID)
-			if err != nil {
-				return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Unable to delete previous implicit Subscription")
-			}
-		}
-
-		notifyVolume, err := actions.ComputeNotificationVolume(old, validParams.UExtent)
-		if err != nil {
-			return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to compute notification volume")
-		}
-
-		// Notify relevant Subscriptions
-		subsToNotify, err := r.IncrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents(ctx, notifyVolume)
-		if err != nil {
-			return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to notify relevant Subscriptions")
-		}
-
-		// Return response to client
-		responseOK = &restapi.ChangeOperationalIntentReferenceResponse{
-			OperationalIntentReference: *op.ToRest(),
-			Subscribers:                makeSubscribersToNotify(subsToNotify),
-		}
-
-		return nil
-	}
-
-	_, err = a.Store.Transact(ctx, dssstore.NewFuncOperation(action))
-	if err != nil {
-		return nil, responseConflict, err // No need to Propagate this error as this is not a useful stacktrace line
+	if result.Conflict != nil {
+		return restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response409: result.Conflict}
 	}
 
-	return responseOK, responseConflict, nil
+	return restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceResponseSet{Response200: result.Response}
 }
diff --git a/pkg/scd/actions/availability.go b/pkg/scd/operations/availability.go
similarity index 94%
rename from pkg/scd/actions/availability.go
rename to pkg/scd/operations/availability.go
index 0581ddf3e..4678b90d0 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/actions/availability.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/operations/availability.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-package actions
+package operations
 
 import (
 	"context"
@@ -17,17 +17,17 @@ func init() {
 	Registry[restapi.GetUssAvailabilityOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:     dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:     dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.GetUssAvailabilityRequest],
-		Execute:    ExecuteGetUssAvailability,
+		Execute:    executeGetUssAvailability,
 		IsReadOnly: true,
 	}
 	Registry[restapi.SetUssAvailabilityOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.SetUssAvailabilityRequest],
-		Execute: ExecuteSetUssAvailability,
+		Execute: executeSetUssAvailability,
 	}
 }
 
-func ExecuteGetUssAvailability(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeGetUssAvailability(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	req, ok := request.(*restapi.GetUssAvailabilityRequest)
 	if !ok {
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.GetUssAvailabilityOperationID)
@@ -55,7 +55,7 @@ func ExecuteGetUssAvailability(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, reque
 	}, nil
 }
 
-func ExecuteSetUssAvailability(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeSetUssAvailability(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	req, ok := request.(*restapi.SetUssAvailabilityRequest)
 	if !ok {
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.SetUssAvailabilityOperationID)
diff --git a/pkg/scd/actions/constraint.go b/pkg/scd/operations/constraint.go
similarity index 95%
rename from pkg/scd/actions/constraint.go
rename to pkg/scd/operations/constraint.go
index 262be05f1..7b32dd7f5 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/actions/constraint.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/operations/constraint.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-package actions
+package operations
 
 import (
 	"context"
@@ -20,33 +20,33 @@ func init() {
 	Registry[restapi.DeleteConstraintReferenceOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.DeleteConstraintReferenceRequest],
-		Execute: ExecuteDeleteConstraint,
+		Execute: executeDeleteConstraint,
 	}
 	Registry[restapi.GetConstraintReferenceOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:     dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:     dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.GetConstraintReferenceRequest],
-		Execute:    ExecuteGetConstraint,
+		Execute:    executeGetConstraint,
 		IsReadOnly: true,
 	}
 	Registry[restapi.CreateConstraintReferenceOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.CreateConstraintReferenceRequest],
-		Execute: ExecutePutConstraint,
+		Execute: executePutConstraint,
 	}
 	Registry[restapi.UpdateConstraintReferenceOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.UpdateConstraintReferenceRequest],
-		Execute: ExecutePutConstraint,
+		Execute: executePutConstraint,
 	}
 	Registry[restapi.QueryConstraintReferencesOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:     dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:     dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.QueryConstraintReferencesRequest],
-		Execute:    ExecuteQueryConstraintReferences,
+		Execute:    executeQueryConstraintReferences,
 		IsReadOnly: true,
 	}
 }
 
-func ExecuteGetConstraint(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeGetConstraint(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	req, ok := request.(*restapi.GetConstraintReferenceRequest)
 	if !ok {
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.GetConstraintReferenceOperationID)
@@ -75,9 +75,9 @@ func ExecuteGetConstraint(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request ds
 	}, nil
 }
 
-// ExecutePutConstraint inserts or updates a Constraint.
+// executePutConstraint inserts or updates a Constraint.
 // If ovn is empty (""), it will attempt to create a new Constraint.
-func ExecutePutConstraint(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executePutConstraint(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	var (
 		manager  string
 		entityid restapi.EntityID
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ func ExecutePutConstraint(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request ds
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.CreateConstraintReferenceOperationID)
 	}
 
-	validParams, err := ValidateAndReturnConstraintUpsertParams(timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx), entityid, params)
+	validParams, err := ValidateAndReturnConstraintUpsertParams(timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx), entityid, params)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(err, dsserr.BadRequest, "Failed to validate Constraint upsert parameters")
 	}
@@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ func ValidateAndReturnConstraintUpsertParams(
 	return valid, nil
 }
 
-func ExecuteQueryConstraintReferences(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeQueryConstraintReferences(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	req, ok := request.(*restapi.QueryConstraintReferencesRequest)
 	if !ok {
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.QueryConstraintReferencesOperationID)
@@ -270,7 +270,7 @@ func ExecuteQueryConstraintReferences(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository
 	return response, nil
 }
 
-func ExecuteDeleteConstraint(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeDeleteConstraint(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	req, ok := request.(*restapi.DeleteConstraintReferenceRequest)
 	if !ok {
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.DeleteConstraintReferenceOperationID)
diff --git a/pkg/scd/actions/operational_intents.go b/pkg/scd/operations/operational_intents.go
similarity index 69%
rename from pkg/scd/actions/operational_intents.go
rename to pkg/scd/operations/operational_intents.go
index 51f2162ed..76216c814 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/actions/operational_intents.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/operations/operational_intents.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-package actions
+package operations
 
 import (
 	"context"
@@ -14,6 +14,7 @@ import (
 	scdmodels "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/models"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/repos"
 	dssstore "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/store"
+	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/timestamp"
 	"github.com/interuss/stacktrace"
 )
 
@@ -21,19 +22,29 @@ func init() {
 	Registry[restapi.GetOperationalIntentReferenceOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:     dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:     dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.GetOperationalIntentReferenceRequest],
-		Execute:    ExecuteGetOperationalIntentReference,
+		Execute:    executeGetOperationalIntentReference,
 		IsReadOnly: true,
 	}
 	Registry[restapi.QueryOperationalIntentReferencesOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:     dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:     dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.QueryOperationalIntentReferencesRequest],
-		Execute:    ExecuteQueryOperationalIntentReferences,
+		Execute:    executeQueryOperationalIntentReferences,
 		IsReadOnly: true,
 	}
 	Registry[restapi.DeleteOperationalIntentReferenceOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.DeleteOperationalIntentReferenceRequest],
-		Execute: ExecuteDeleteOperationalIntentReference,
+		Execute: executeDeleteOperationalIntentReference,
+	}
+	Registry[restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
+		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
+		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceRequest],
+		Execute: executePutOperationalIntentReference,
+	}
+	Registry[restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
+		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
+		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceRequest],
+		Execute: executePutOperationalIntentReference,
 	}
 }
 
@@ -68,9 +79,9 @@ func SubscriptionIsImplicitAndOnlyAttachedToOIR(ctx context.Context, r repos.Rep
 	return false, nil
 }
 
-// ExecuteDeleteOperationalIntentReference deletes a single operational intent ref for a given ID
+// executeDeleteOperationalIntentReference deletes a single operational intent ref for a given ID
 // at the specified version.
-func ExecuteDeleteOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeDeleteOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	req, ok := request.(*restapi.DeleteOperationalIntentReferenceRequest)
 	if !ok {
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.DeleteOperationalIntentReferenceOperationID)
@@ -171,7 +182,7 @@ func ExecuteDeleteOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Rep
 	}, nil
 }
 
-func ExecuteGetOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeGetOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	req, ok := request.(*restapi.GetOperationalIntentReferenceRequest)
 	if !ok {
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.GetOperationalIntentReferenceOperationID)
@@ -199,7 +210,7 @@ func ExecuteGetOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Reposi
 	}, nil
 }
 
-func ExecuteQueryOperationalIntentReferences(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeQueryOperationalIntentReferences(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	req, ok := request.(*restapi.QueryOperationalIntentReferencesRequest)
 	if !ok {
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.QueryOperationalIntentReferencesOperationID)
@@ -251,11 +262,11 @@ func CheckUpsertPermissionsAndReturnManager(authorizedManager *api.Authorization
 	return dssmodels.Manager(*authorizedManager.ClientID), nil
 }
 
-// ValidateUpsertRequestAgainstPreviousOIR checks that the client requesting an OIR upsert has the necessary permissions and that the request is valid.
+// validateUpsertRequestAgainstPreviousOIR checks that the client requesting an OIR upsert has the necessary permissions and that the request is valid.
 // On success, the version of the OIR is returned:
 //   - upon initial creation (if no previous OIR exists), it is 0
 //   - otherwise, it is the version of the previous OIR
-func ValidateUpsertRequestAgainstPreviousOIR(
+func validateUpsertRequestAgainstPreviousOIR(
 	requestingManager dssmodels.Manager,
 	providedOVN scdmodels.OVN,
 	previousOIR *scdmodels.OperationalIntent,
@@ -281,11 +292,11 @@ func ValidateUpsertRequestAgainstPreviousOIR(
 	return nil
 }
 
-// ComputeNotificationVolume computes the volume that needs to be queried for subscriptions
+// computeNotificationVolume computes the volume that needs to be queried for subscriptions
 // given the requested extent and the (possibly nil) previous operational intent.
 // The returned volume is either the union of the requested extent and the previous OIR's extent, or just the requested extent
 // if the previous OIR is nil.
-func ComputeNotificationVolume(
+func computeNotificationVolume(
 	previousOIR *scdmodels.OperationalIntent,
 	requestedExtent *dssmodels.Volume4D) (*dssmodels.Volume4D, error) {
 
@@ -330,7 +341,7 @@ type validOIRParams struct {
 	Key map[scdmodels.OVN]bool
 }
 
-func (vp *validOIRParams) ToOIR(manager dssmodels.Manager, attachedSub *scdmodels.Subscription, version scdmodels.VersionNumber, pastOVNs []scdmodels.OVN) *scdmodels.OperationalIntent {
+func (vp *validOIRParams) toOIR(manager dssmodels.Manager, attachedSub *scdmodels.Subscription, version scdmodels.VersionNumber, pastOVNs []scdmodels.OVN) *scdmodels.OperationalIntent {
 	// For OIR's in the accepted state, we may not have a attachedSub available,
 	// in such cases the attachedSub ID on scdmodels.OperationalIntent will be nil
 	// and will be replaced with the 'NullV4UUID' when sent over to a client.
@@ -475,9 +486,9 @@ func ValidateAndReturnOIRUpsertParams(
 	return valid, nil
 }
 
-// CreateAndStoreNewImplicitSubscription will create a brand new implicit subscription based on the provided parameters,
+// createAndStoreNewImplicitSubscription will create a brand new implicit subscription based on the provided parameters,
 // store it and return it.
-func CreateAndStoreNewImplicitSubscription(ctx context.Context, r repos.Repository, manager dssmodels.Manager, validParams *validOIRParams) (*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
+func createAndStoreNewImplicitSubscription(ctx context.Context, r repos.Repository, manager dssmodels.Manager, validParams *validOIRParams) (*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
 	generator, err := random.Generator(random.MustFromContext(ctx), "implicit-subscription:"+validParams.ID.String())
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to derive implicit subscription ID generator")
@@ -504,11 +515,11 @@ func CreateAndStoreNewImplicitSubscription(ctx context.Context, r repos.Reposito
 	return r.UpsertSubscription(ctx, &subToUpsert)
 }
 
-// ValidateKeyAndProvideConflictResponse ensures that the provided key contains all the necessary OVNs relevant for the area covered by the OperationalIntent.
+// validateKeyAndProvideConflictResponse ensures that the provided key contains all the necessary OVNs relevant for the area covered by the OperationalIntent.
 // - If all required keys are provided, (nil, nil) will be returned.
-// - If keys are missing, the conflict response to be sent back as well as an error with the dsserr.MissingOVNs code will be returned.
+// - If keys are missing, the conflict response will be returned (conflict, nil).
 // - In case of any other error, (nil, error) will be returned.
-func ValidateKeyAndProvideConflictResponse(
+func validateKeyAndProvideConflictResponse(
 	ctx context.Context,
 	r repos.Repository,
 	requestingManager dssmodels.Manager,
@@ -578,16 +589,16 @@ func ValidateKeyAndProvideConflictResponse(
 			}
 		}
 
-		return responseConflict, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.MissingOVNs, "Missing OVNs: %v", msg)
+		return responseConflict, nil
 	}
 
 	return nil, nil
 }
 
-// EnsureSubscriptionCoversOIR ensures that the subscription covers the requested geo-temporal extent, extending it if both possible and required,
+// ensureSubscriptionCoversOIR ensures that the subscription covers the requested geo-temporal extent, extending it if both possible and required,
 // or failing otherwise.
 // After this method returns successfully, the subscription will cover the requested geo-temporal extent.
-func EnsureSubscriptionCoversOIR(ctx context.Context, r repos.Repository, sub *scdmodels.Subscription, params *validOIRParams) (*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
+func ensureSubscriptionCoversOIR(ctx context.Context, r repos.Repository, sub *scdmodels.Subscription, params *validOIRParams) (*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
 
 	updateSub := false
 	if sub.StartTime != nil && sub.StartTime.After(*params.UExtent.StartTime) {
@@ -624,3 +635,202 @@ func EnsureSubscriptionCoversOIR(ctx context.Context, r repos.Repository, sub *s
 
 	return sub, nil
 }
+
+// PutOperationalIntentReferenceResult is the result of an Operational Intent Reference put operation.
+// Exactly one of Response or Conflict is set: Conflict is set when the upsert failed because of missing OVNs,
+// and Response is set on success.
+type PutOperationalIntentReferenceResult struct {
+	Response *restapi.ChangeOperationalIntentReferenceResponse
+	Conflict *restapi.AirspaceConflictResponse
+}
+
+// executePutOperationalIntentReference inserts or updates an Operational Intent.
+// If the ovn argument is empty (""), it will attempt to create a new Operational Intent.
+func executePutOperationalIntentReference(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+	var (
+		entityid restapi.EntityID
+		ovn      restapi.EntityOVN
+		params   *restapi.PutOperationalIntentReferenceParameters
+		auth     *api.AuthorizationResult
+	)
+
+	switch req := request.(type) {
+	case *restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceRequest:
+		entityid, params, auth = req.Entityid, req.Body, &req.Auth
+	case *restapi.UpdateOperationalIntentReferenceRequest:
+		entityid, ovn, params, auth = req.Entityid, req.Ovn, req.Body, &req.Auth
+	default:
+		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.CreateOperationalIntentReferenceOperationID)
+	}
+
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
+
+	// Base URL scheme validation is a pre-flight, request-only check performed by the handler
+	// before this action is proposed for consensus; skip it here (allowHTTPBaseUrls: true).
+	validParams, err := ValidateAndReturnOIRUpsertParams(now, entityid, ovn, params, true)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(err, dsserr.BadRequest, "Failed to validate Operational Intent Reference upsert parameters")
+	}
+	if auth.ClientID == nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.PermissionDenied, "Missing manager")
+	}
+	manager := dssmodels.Manager(*auth.ClientID)
+
+	// Get existing OperationalIntent, if any
+	old, err := repo.GetOperationalIntent(ctx, validParams.ID)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Could not get OperationalIntent from repo")
+	}
+
+	// Lock subscriptions based on the cell and subscriptions we're going to use
+	// to reduce the number of retries under concurrent load.
+	// See issue #1002 for details.
+	var subscriptionIds = make([]dssmodels.ID, 0)
+
+	if old != nil && old.SubscriptionID != nil {
+		subscriptionIds = append(subscriptionIds, *old.SubscriptionID)
+	}
+
+	if !validParams.SubscriptionID.Empty() {
+		subscriptionIds = append(subscriptionIds, validParams.SubscriptionID)
+	}
+
+	err = repo.LockSubscriptionsOnCells(ctx, validParams.Cells, subscriptionIds, validParams.UExtent.StartTime, validParams.UExtent.EndTime)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Unable to acquire lock")
+	}
+
+	// Validate the request against the previous OIR
+	if err := validateUpsertRequestAgainstPreviousOIR(manager, validParams.OVN, old); err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.PropagateWithCode(err, stacktrace.GetCode(err), "Request validation failed")
+	}
+
+	var (
+		version     = scdmodels.VersionNumber(1)
+		pastOVNs    = make([]scdmodels.OVN, 0)
+		previousSub *scdmodels.Subscription
+	)
+	if old != nil {
+		version = old.Version + 1
+		pastOVNs = append(old.PastOVNs, validParams.OVN)
+
+		// Fetch the previous OIR's subscription if it exists
+		if old.SubscriptionID != nil {
+			previousSub, err = repo.GetSubscription(ctx, *old.SubscriptionID)
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Unable to get OperationalIntent's Subscription from repo")
+			}
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Determine if the previous subscription is being replaced and if it will need to be cleaned up
+	previousSubIsBeingReplaced := previousSub != nil && validParams.SubscriptionID != previousSub.ID
+	removePreviousImplicitSubscription := false
+	if previousSubIsBeingReplaced {
+		removePreviousImplicitSubscription, err = SubscriptionIsImplicitAndOnlyAttachedToOIR(ctx, repo, validParams.ID, previousSub)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Could not determine if previous Subscription can be removed")
+		}
+	}
+
+	// attachedSub is the subscription that will end up being attached to the OIR
+	// it defaults to the previous subscription (which may be nil), and may be updated if required by the parameters
+	attachedSub := previousSub
+	if validParams.SubscriptionID.Empty() {
+		// No subscription ID was provided:
+		// check if an implicit subscription should be created, otherwise do nothing
+		if validParams.ImplicitSubscription.Requested {
+			// Parameters for a new implicit subscription have been passed: we will create
+			// a new implicit subscription even if another subscription was attached to this OIR before,
+			// regardless of whether it was an implicit subscription or not.
+			if attachedSub, err = createAndStoreNewImplicitSubscription(ctx, repo, manager, validParams); err != nil {
+				return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to create implicit subscription")
+			}
+		} else {
+			// If no subscription ID is provided and no implicit subscription is requested,
+			// the OIR should have no attached subscription
+			attachedSub = nil
+		}
+	} else {
+		// Attempt to rely on the specified subscription
+		// If it is different from the previous subscription, we need to fetch it from the store
+		// in order to ensure it correctly covers the OIR.
+		// We do the check below in order to avoid re-fetching the subscription if it has not changed
+		if attachedSub == nil || previousSubIsBeingReplaced {
+			attachedSub, err = repo.GetSubscription(ctx, validParams.SubscriptionID)
+			if err != nil {
+				return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Unable to get requested Subscription from store")
+			}
+			if attachedSub == nil {
+				return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.BadRequest, "Specified Subscription %s does not exist", validParams.SubscriptionID)
+			}
+		}
+
+		// We need to confirm that it is owned by the calling manager
+		if attachedSub.Manager != manager {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(
+				// We do a bit of wrapping gymnastics because the root error message will be sent in the response,
+				// and we don't want to include the effective manager in there.
+				stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(
+					dsserr.PermissionDenied, "Specificed Subscription is owned by different client"),
+				// The propagation message will end in the logs and help with debugging.
+				"Subscription %s owned by %s, but %s attempted to use it for an OperationalIntent",
+				validParams.SubscriptionID,
+				attachedSub.Manager,
+				manager,
+			)
+		}
+
+		// We need to ensure the subscription covers the OIR's geo-temporal extent
+		attachedSub, err = ensureSubscriptionCoversOIR(ctx, repo, attachedSub, validParams)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to ensure subscription covers OIR")
+		}
+	}
+
+	if validParams.State.RequiresKey() {
+		responseConflict, err := validateKeyAndProvideConflictResponse(ctx, repo, manager, validParams, attachedSub)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to validate key")
+		}
+		if responseConflict != nil {
+			return &PutOperationalIntentReferenceResult{Conflict: responseConflict}, nil
+		}
+	}
+
+	// Construct the new OperationalIntent
+	op := validParams.toOIR(manager, attachedSub, version, pastOVNs)
+
+	// Upsert the OperationalIntent
+	op, err = repo.UpsertOperationalIntent(ctx, op)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to upsert OperationalIntent in repo")
+	}
+
+	// Check if the previously attached subscription should be removed
+	if removePreviousImplicitSubscription {
+		err = repo.DeleteSubscription(ctx, previousSub.ID)
+		if err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Unable to delete previous implicit Subscription")
+		}
+	}
+
+	notifyVolume, err := computeNotificationVolume(old, validParams.UExtent)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to compute notification volume")
+	}
+
+	// Notify relevant Subscriptions
+	subsToNotify, err := repo.IncrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents(ctx, notifyVolume)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to notify relevant Subscriptions")
+	}
+
+	// Return response to client
+	return &PutOperationalIntentReferenceResult{
+		Response: &restapi.ChangeOperationalIntentReferenceResponse{
+			OperationalIntentReference: *op.ToRest(),
+			Subscribers:                makeSubscribersToNotify(subsToNotify),
+		},
+	}, nil
+}
diff --git a/pkg/scd/actions/registry.go b/pkg/scd/operations/registry.go
similarity index 98%
rename from pkg/scd/actions/registry.go
rename to pkg/scd/operations/registry.go
index 60961f40a..c339ea535 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/actions/registry.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/operations/registry.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-package actions
+package operations
 
 import (
 	restapi "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/api/scdv1"
diff --git a/pkg/scd/actions/subscription.go b/pkg/scd/operations/subscription.go
similarity index 95%
rename from pkg/scd/actions/subscription.go
rename to pkg/scd/operations/subscription.go
index 30106ee29..a4cb4c989 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/actions/subscription.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/operations/subscription.go
@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-package actions
+package operations
 
 import (
 	"context"
@@ -19,33 +19,33 @@ func init() {
 	Registry[restapi.CreateSubscriptionOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.CreateSubscriptionRequest],
-		Execute: ExecutePutSubscription,
+		Execute: executePutSubscription,
 	}
 	Registry[restapi.UpdateSubscriptionOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.UpdateSubscriptionRequest],
-		Execute: ExecutePutSubscription,
+		Execute: executePutSubscription,
 	}
 	Registry[restapi.DeleteSubscriptionOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:  dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:  dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.DeleteSubscriptionRequest],
-		Execute: ExecuteDeleteSubscription,
+		Execute: executeDeleteSubscription,
 	}
 	Registry[restapi.GetSubscriptionOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:     dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:     dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.GetSubscriptionRequest],
-		Execute:    ExecuteGetSubscription,
+		Execute:    executeGetSubscription,
 		IsReadOnly: true,
 	}
 	Registry[restapi.QuerySubscriptionsOperationID] = dssstore.OperationHandler[repos.Repository]{
 		Encode:     dssstore.EncodeJSON,
 		Decode:     dssstore.DecodeJSON[*restapi.QuerySubscriptionsRequest],
-		Execute:    ExecuteQuerySubscriptions,
+		Execute:    executeQuerySubscriptions,
 		IsReadOnly: true,
 	}
 }
 
-func ExecutePutSubscription(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executePutSubscription(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	var (
 		manager        string
 		subscriptionid restapi.SubscriptionID
@@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ func ExecutePutSubscription(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request
 	}
 
 	// Validate and perhaps correct StartTime and EndTime.
-	if err := subreq.AdjustTimeRange(timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx), old); err != nil {
+	if err := subreq.AdjustTimeRange(timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx), old); err != nil {
 		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Error adjusting time range of Subscription")
 	}
 
@@ -253,7 +253,7 @@ func getOperations(ctx context.Context, r repos.Repository, opIDs []dssmodels.ID
 	return res, nil
 }
 
-func ExecuteDeleteSubscription(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeDeleteSubscription(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	req, ok := request.(*restapi.DeleteSubscriptionRequest)
 	if !ok {
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.DeleteSubscriptionOperationID)
@@ -305,7 +305,7 @@ func ExecuteDeleteSubscription(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, reque
 	return &restapi.DeleteSubscriptionResponse{Subscription: *p}, nil
 }
 
-func ExecuteGetSubscription(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeGetSubscription(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	req, ok := request.(*restapi.GetSubscriptionRequest)
 	if !ok {
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.GetSubscriptionOperationID)
@@ -349,7 +349,7 @@ func ExecuteGetSubscription(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request
 	return &restapi.GetSubscriptionResponse{Subscription: *p}, nil
 }
 
-func ExecuteQuerySubscriptions(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
+func executeQuerySubscriptions(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, request dssstore.OperationRequest) (any, error) {
 	req, ok := request.(*restapi.QuerySubscriptionsRequest)
 	if !ok {
 		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected request type %T for operation %q", request, restapi.QuerySubscriptionsOperationID)
@@ -373,7 +373,7 @@ func ExecuteQuerySubscriptions(ctx context.Context, repo repos.Repository, reque
 		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Error searching Subscriptions in repo")
 	}
 
-	nowMarker := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	nowMarker := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	// Return response to client
 	response := &restapi.QuerySubscriptionsResponse{
diff --git a/pkg/scd/server.go b/pkg/scd/server.go
index a8eab0aaa..9dea0d488 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/server.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/server.go
@@ -1,32 +1,9 @@
 package scd
 
 import (
-	restapi "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/api/scdv1"
-	scdmodels "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/models"
 	scdstore "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/store"
 )
 
-func makeSubscribersToNotify(subscriptions []*scdmodels.Subscription) []restapi.SubscriberToNotify {
-	result := []restapi.SubscriberToNotify{}
-
-	subscriptionsByURL := map[string][]restapi.SubscriptionState{}
-	for _, sub := range subscriptions {
-		subState := restapi.SubscriptionState{
-			SubscriptionId:    restapi.SubscriptionID(sub.ID.String()),
-			NotificationIndex: restapi.SubscriptionNotificationIndex(sub.NotificationIndex),
-		}
-		subscriptionsByURL[sub.USSBaseURL] = append(subscriptionsByURL[sub.USSBaseURL], subState)
-	}
-	for url, states := range subscriptionsByURL {
-		result = append(result, restapi.SubscriberToNotify{
-			UssBaseUrl:    restapi.SubscriptionUssBaseURL(url),
-			Subscriptions: states,
-		})
-	}
-
-	return result
-}
-
 // Server implements scdv1.Implementation.
 type Server struct {
 	Store             scdstore.Store
diff --git a/pkg/scd/store/memstore/availability.go b/pkg/scd/store/memstore/availability.go
index bb750996a..8fe0dc839 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/store/memstore/availability.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/store/memstore/availability.go
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ func (r *repo) GetUssAvailability(_ context.Context, id dssmodels.Manager) (*scd
 }
 
 func (r *repo) UpsertUssAvailability(ctx context.Context, s *scdmodels.UssAvailabilityStatus) (*scdmodels.UssAvailabilityStatus, error) {
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	rec := &availabilityRecord{
 		Uss:          s.Uss,
diff --git a/pkg/scd/store/memstore/constraints.go b/pkg/scd/store/memstore/constraints.go
index 6fb54f143..33c9a0b6a 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/store/memstore/constraints.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/store/memstore/constraints.go
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ func (r *repo) UpsertConstraint(ctx context.Context, s *scdmodels.Constraint) (*
 		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "Failed to convert array to jackc/pgtype")
 	}
 
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	rec := &constraintRecord{
 		ID:            s.ID,
diff --git a/pkg/scd/store/memstore/operational_intents.go b/pkg/scd/store/memstore/operational_intents.go
index fad0deec2..0abbab93f 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/store/memstore/operational_intents.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/store/memstore/operational_intents.go
@@ -98,7 +98,7 @@ func (r *repo) UpsertOperationalIntent(ctx context.Context, operation *scdmodels
 		ussRequestedOVN = operation.OVN.String()
 	}
 
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	rec := &operationalIntentRecord{
 		ID:              operation.ID,
diff --git a/pkg/scd/store/memstore/store_test.go b/pkg/scd/store/memstore/store_test.go
index 7f43bdf8c..caecd5bc6 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/store/memstore/store_test.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/store/memstore/store_test.go
@@ -40,7 +40,7 @@ func setUpStore(t *testing.T) *repo {
 // writeCtx returns a context carrying a deterministic write timestamp so that
 // updated_at is controlled in tests.
 func writeCtx() context.Context {
-	return timestamp.WithRequestTimestamp(context.Background(), writeTime)
+	return timestamp.NewContext(context.Background(), writeTime)
 }
 
 func sampleConstraint() *scdmodels.Constraint {
diff --git a/pkg/scd/store/memstore/subscriptions.go b/pkg/scd/store/memstore/subscriptions.go
index 02f233698..850d06125 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/store/memstore/subscriptions.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/store/memstore/subscriptions.go
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ func (r *repo) GetSubscription(_ context.Context, id dssmodels.ID) (*scdmodels.S
 }
 
 func (r *repo) UpsertSubscription(ctx context.Context, s *scdmodels.Subscription) (*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
-	now := timestamp.MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx)
+	now := timestamp.MustFromContext(ctx)
 
 	rec := &subscriptionRecord{
 		ID:                          s.ID,
diff --git a/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/constraints.go b/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/constraints.go
index 0983add14..c2bc08626 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/constraints.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/constraints.go
@@ -2,29 +2,125 @@ package raftstore
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"encoding/json"
 
-	dsserr "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/errors"
 	dssmodels "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/models"
+	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/raftstore/consensus"
 	scdmodels "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/models"
 	"github.com/interuss/stacktrace"
 )
 
-func (r *repo) SearchConstraints(_ context.Context, v4d *dssmodels.Volume4D) ([]*scdmodels.Constraint, error) {
-	return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "SearchConstraints not implemented for raftstore")
+const (
+	searchConstraints consensus.RequestType = "searchConstraints"
+	getConstraint     consensus.RequestType = "getConstraint"
+	upsertConstraint  consensus.RequestType = "upsertConstraint"
+	deleteConstraint  consensus.RequestType = "deleteConstraint"
+	countConstraints  consensus.RequestType = "countConstraints"
+)
+
+func (r *repo) SearchConstraints(ctx context.Context, v4d *dssmodels.Volume4D) ([]*scdmodels.Constraint, error) {
+	buf, err := json.Marshal(v4d)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to marshal payload")
+	}
+
+	result, err := r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, searchConstraints, buf, true)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	if constraints, ok := result.([]*scdmodels.Constraint); ok {
+		return constraints, nil
+	}
+	return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type: %T", result)
 }
 
-func (r *repo) GetConstraint(_ context.Context, id dssmodels.ID) (*scdmodels.Constraint, error) {
-	return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "GetConstraint not implemented for raftstore")
+func (r *repo) GetConstraint(ctx context.Context, id dssmodels.ID) (*scdmodels.Constraint, error) {
+	buf, err := json.Marshal(id)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to marshal payload")
+	}
+
+	result, err := r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, getConstraint, buf, true)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	if constraint, ok := result.(*scdmodels.Constraint); ok {
+		return constraint, nil
+	}
+	return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type: %T", result)
 }
 
-func (r *repo) UpsertConstraint(_ context.Context, constraint *scdmodels.Constraint) (*scdmodels.Constraint, error) {
-	return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "UpsertConstraint not implemented for raftstore")
+func (r *repo) UpsertConstraint(ctx context.Context, constraint *scdmodels.Constraint) (*scdmodels.Constraint, error) {
+	buf, err := json.Marshal(constraint)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to marshal payload")
+	}
+
+	result, err := r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, upsertConstraint, buf, false)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	if upserted, ok := result.(*scdmodels.Constraint); ok {
+		return upserted, nil
+	}
+	return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type: %T", result)
 }
 
-func (r *repo) DeleteConstraint(_ context.Context, id dssmodels.ID) error {
-	return stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "DeleteConstraint not implemented for raftstore")
+func (r *repo) DeleteConstraint(ctx context.Context, id dssmodels.ID) error {
+	buf, err := json.Marshal(id)
+	if err != nil {
+		return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to marshal payload")
+	}
+
+	_, err = r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, deleteConstraint, buf, false)
+	return err
 }
 
-func (r *repo) CountConstraints(_ context.Context) (int64, error) {
-	return 0, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "CountConstraint not implemented for raftstore")
+func (r *repo) CountConstraints(ctx context.Context) (int64, error) {
+	result, err := r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, countConstraints, nil, true)
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0, err
+	}
+	if count, ok := result.(int64); ok {
+		return count, nil
+	}
+	return 0, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type: %T", result)
+}
+
+func (r *repo) applyConstraint(ctx context.Context, proposal consensus.Proposal) (any, error) {
+	switch proposal.RequestType {
+	case searchConstraints:
+		var v4d dssmodels.Volume4D
+		if err := json.Unmarshal(proposal.Value, &v4d); err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", searchConstraints)
+		}
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().SearchConstraints(ctx, &v4d)
+
+	case getConstraint:
+		var id dssmodels.ID
+		if err := json.Unmarshal(proposal.Value, &id); err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", getConstraint)
+		}
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().GetConstraint(ctx, id)
+
+	case upsertConstraint:
+		var constraint scdmodels.Constraint
+		if err := json.Unmarshal(proposal.Value, &constraint); err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", upsertConstraint)
+		}
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().UpsertConstraint(ctx, &constraint)
+
+	case deleteConstraint:
+		var id dssmodels.ID
+		if err := json.Unmarshal(proposal.Value, &id); err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", deleteConstraint)
+		}
+		return nil, r.Store.GetRepo().DeleteConstraint(ctx, id)
+
+	case countConstraints:
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().CountConstraints(ctx)
+
+	default:
+		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unrecognized constraint request type: %s", proposal.RequestType)
+	}
 }
diff --git a/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/store.go b/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/store.go
index 918499c25..efee3ad3c 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/store.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/store.go
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/memstore"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/raftstore"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/raftstore/consensus"
-	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/actions"
+	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/operations"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/repos"
 	scdmemstore "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/store/memstore"
 	scdraftparams "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/params"
@@ -17,8 +17,7 @@ import (
 // repo is a full implementation of scd.repos.Repository for Raft-based storage.
 type repo struct {
 	consensus *consensus.Consensus
-	memStore  *memstore.Store[repos.Repository]
-	memRepo   repos.Repository
+	*memstore.Store[repos.Repository]
 }
 
 func Init(ctx context.Context, logger *zap.Logger, locality string) (*raftstore.Store[repos.Repository], error) {
@@ -32,8 +31,8 @@ func Init(ctx context.Context, logger *zap.Logger, locality string) (*raftstore.
 		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to initialize scd memstore")
 	}
 
-	r := &repo{memStore: memStore, memRepo: memStore.GetRepo()}
-	store, err := raftstore.Init(ctx, logger.With(zap.String("service", "scd")), locality, params, r, actions.Registry)
+	r := &repo{Store: memStore}
+	store, err := raftstore.Init(ctx, logger.With(zap.String("service", "scd")), locality, params, r, operations.Registry)
 	if err != nil {
 		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to initialize scd raftstore")
 	}
@@ -45,19 +44,18 @@ func Init(ctx context.Context, logger *zap.Logger, locality string) (*raftstore.
 
 func (r *repo) GetRepo() repos.Repository { return r }
 
-func (r *repo) GetSnapshot() ([]byte, error) {
-	return r.memStore.GetSnapshot()
-}
-
-func (r *repo) RestoreFromSnapshot(data []byte) error {
-	return r.memStore.RestoreFromSnapshot(data)
-}
-
 func (r *repo) Apply(ctx context.Context, proposal consensus.Proposal) (any, error) {
 	switch proposal.RequestType {
+	case searchConstraints, getConstraint, upsertConstraint, deleteConstraint, countConstraints:
+		return r.applyConstraint(ctx, proposal)
+
+	case searchSubscriptions, getSubscription, upsertSubscription, deleteSubscription,
+		incrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents, incrementNotificationIndicesForConstraints,
+		listExpiredSubscriptions, countSubscriptions:
+		return r.applySubscription(ctx, proposal)
 
 	default:
-		handler, ok := actions.Registry[string(proposal.RequestType)]
+		handler, ok := operations.Registry[string(proposal.RequestType)]
 		if !ok {
 			return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unrecognized request type: %s", proposal.RequestType)
 		}
@@ -67,6 +65,6 @@ func (r *repo) Apply(ctx context.Context, proposal consensus.Proposal) (any, err
 			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to decode %s payload", proposal.RequestType)
 		}
 
-		return handler.Execute(ctx, r.memRepo, request)
+		return handler.Execute(ctx, r.Store.GetRepo(), request)
 	}
 }
diff --git a/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/subscriptions.go b/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/subscriptions.go
index 2e5609335..47a5806f5 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/subscriptions.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/store/raftstore/subscriptions.go
@@ -2,47 +2,196 @@ package raftstore
 
 import (
 	"context"
+	"encoding/json"
 	"time"
 
 	"github.com/golang/geo/s2"
-	dsserr "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/errors"
 	dssmodels "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/models"
+	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/raftstore/consensus"
 	scdmodels "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/models"
 	"github.com/interuss/stacktrace"
 )
 
-func (r *repo) SearchSubscriptions(_ context.Context, v4d *dssmodels.Volume4D) ([]*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
-	return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "SearchSubscriptions not implemented for raftstore")
+const (
+	searchSubscriptions                               consensus.RequestType = "searchSubscriptions"
+	getSubscription                                   consensus.RequestType = "getSubscription"
+	upsertSubscription                                consensus.RequestType = "upsertSubscription"
+	deleteSubscription                                consensus.RequestType = "deleteSubscription"
+	incrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents consensus.RequestType = "incrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents"
+	incrementNotificationIndicesForConstraints        consensus.RequestType = "incrementNotificationIndicesForConstraints"
+	listExpiredSubscriptions                          consensus.RequestType = "listExpiredSubscriptions"
+	countSubscriptions                                consensus.RequestType = "countSubscriptions"
+)
+
+func (r *repo) SearchSubscriptions(ctx context.Context, v4d *dssmodels.Volume4D) ([]*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
+	buf, err := json.Marshal(v4d)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to marshal payload")
+	}
+
+	result, err := r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, searchSubscriptions, buf, true)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	if subscriptions, ok := result.([]*scdmodels.Subscription); ok {
+		return subscriptions, nil
+	}
+	return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type: %T", result)
+}
+
+func (r *repo) GetSubscription(ctx context.Context, id dssmodels.ID) (*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
+	buf, err := json.Marshal(id)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to marshal payload")
+	}
+
+	result, err := r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, getSubscription, buf, true)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	if sub, ok := result.(*scdmodels.Subscription); ok {
+		return sub, nil
+	}
+	return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type: %T", result)
 }
 
-func (r *repo) GetSubscription(_ context.Context, id dssmodels.ID) (*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
-	return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "GetSubscription not implemented for raftstore")
+func (r *repo) UpsertSubscription(ctx context.Context, sub *scdmodels.Subscription) (*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
+	buf, err := json.Marshal(sub)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to marshal payload")
+	}
+
+	result, err := r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, upsertSubscription, buf, false)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	if upserted, ok := result.(*scdmodels.Subscription); ok {
+		return upserted, nil
+	}
+	return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type: %T", result)
+}
+
+func (r *repo) DeleteSubscription(ctx context.Context, id dssmodels.ID) error {
+	buf, err := json.Marshal(id)
+	if err != nil {
+		return stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to marshal payload")
+	}
+
+	_, err = r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, deleteSubscription, buf, false)
+	return err
 }
 
-func (r *repo) UpsertSubscription(_ context.Context, sub *scdmodels.Subscription) (*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
-	return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "UpsertSubscription not implemented for raftstore")
+func (r *repo) IncrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents(ctx context.Context, v4d *dssmodels.Volume4D) ([]*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
+	return r.incrementNotificationIndices(ctx, incrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents, v4d)
 }
 
-func (r *repo) DeleteSubscription(_ context.Context, id dssmodels.ID) error {
-	return stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "DeleteSubscription not implemented for raftstore")
+func (r *repo) IncrementNotificationIndicesForConstraints(ctx context.Context, v4d *dssmodels.Volume4D) ([]*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
+	return r.incrementNotificationIndices(ctx, incrementNotificationIndicesForConstraints, v4d)
 }
 
-func (r *repo) IncrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents(_ context.Context, v4d *dssmodels.Volume4D) ([]*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
-	return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "IncrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents not implemented for raftstore")
+func (r *repo) incrementNotificationIndices(ctx context.Context, requestType consensus.RequestType, v4d *dssmodels.Volume4D) ([]*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
+	buf, err := json.Marshal(v4d)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to marshal payload")
+	}
+
+	result, err := r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, requestType, buf, false)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	if subscriptions, ok := result.([]*scdmodels.Subscription); ok {
+		return subscriptions, nil
+	}
+	return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type: %T", result)
 }
 
-func (r *repo) IncrementNotificationIndicesForConstraints(_ context.Context, v4d *dssmodels.Volume4D) ([]*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
-	return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "IncrementNotificationIndicesForConstraints not implemented for raftstore")
+// LockSubscriptionsOnCells is a no-op in the raftstore implementation
+func (r *repo) LockSubscriptionsOnCells(_ context.Context, _ s2.CellUnion, _ []dssmodels.ID, _ *time.Time, _ *time.Time) error {
+	return nil
 }
 
-func (r *repo) LockSubscriptionsOnCells(_ context.Context, cells s2.CellUnion, subscriptionIds []dssmodels.ID, startTime *time.Time, endTime *time.Time) error {
-	return stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "LockSubscriptionsOnCells not implemented for raftstore")
+func (r *repo) ListExpiredSubscriptions(ctx context.Context, threshold time.Time) ([]*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
+	buf, err := json.Marshal(threshold)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to marshal payload")
+	}
+
+	result, err := r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, listExpiredSubscriptions, buf, true)
+	if err != nil {
+		return nil, err
+	}
+	if subscriptions, ok := result.([]*scdmodels.Subscription); ok {
+		return subscriptions, nil
+	}
+	return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type: %T", result)
 }
 
-func (r *repo) ListExpiredSubscriptions(_ context.Context, threshold time.Time) ([]*scdmodels.Subscription, error) {
-	return nil, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "ListExpiredSubscriptions not implemented for raftstore")
+func (r *repo) CountSubscriptions(ctx context.Context) (int64, error) {
+	result, err := r.consensus.HandleClientRequest(ctx, countSubscriptions, nil, true)
+	if err != nil {
+		return 0, err
+	}
+	if count, ok := result.(int64); ok {
+		return count, nil
+	}
+	return 0, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type: %T", result)
 }
 
-func (r *repo) CountSubscriptions(_ context.Context) (int64, error) {
-	return 0, stacktrace.NewErrorWithCode(dsserr.NotImplemented, "CountSubscriptions not implemented for raftstore")
+func (r *repo) applySubscription(ctx context.Context, proposal consensus.Proposal) (any, error) {
+	switch proposal.RequestType {
+	case searchSubscriptions:
+		var v4d dssmodels.Volume4D
+		if err := json.Unmarshal(proposal.Value, &v4d); err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", searchSubscriptions)
+		}
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().SearchSubscriptions(ctx, &v4d)
+
+	case getSubscription:
+		var id dssmodels.ID
+		if err := json.Unmarshal(proposal.Value, &id); err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", getSubscription)
+		}
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().GetSubscription(ctx, id)
+
+	case upsertSubscription:
+		var sub scdmodels.Subscription
+		if err := json.Unmarshal(proposal.Value, &sub); err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", upsertSubscription)
+		}
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().UpsertSubscription(ctx, &sub)
+
+	case deleteSubscription:
+		var id dssmodels.ID
+		if err := json.Unmarshal(proposal.Value, &id); err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", deleteSubscription)
+		}
+		return nil, r.Store.GetRepo().DeleteSubscription(ctx, id)
+
+	case incrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents:
+		var v4d dssmodels.Volume4D
+		if err := json.Unmarshal(proposal.Value, &v4d); err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", incrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents)
+		}
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().IncrementNotificationIndicesForOperationalIntents(ctx, &v4d)
+
+	case incrementNotificationIndicesForConstraints:
+		var v4d dssmodels.Volume4D
+		if err := json.Unmarshal(proposal.Value, &v4d); err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", incrementNotificationIndicesForConstraints)
+		}
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().IncrementNotificationIndicesForConstraints(ctx, &v4d)
+
+	case listExpiredSubscriptions:
+		var threshold time.Time
+		if err := json.Unmarshal(proposal.Value, &threshold); err != nil {
+			return nil, stacktrace.Propagate(err, "failed to unmarshal %s payload", listExpiredSubscriptions)
+		}
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().ListExpiredSubscriptions(ctx, threshold)
+
+	case countSubscriptions:
+		return r.Store.GetRepo().CountSubscriptions(ctx)
+
+	default:
+		return nil, stacktrace.NewError("unrecognized subscription request type: %s", proposal.RequestType)
+	}
 }
diff --git a/pkg/scd/store/sqlstore/store.go b/pkg/scd/store/sqlstore/store.go
index 2dd58d4c3..d4a2b510d 100644
--- a/pkg/scd/store/sqlstore/store.go
+++ b/pkg/scd/store/sqlstore/store.go
@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ import (
 	dssql "github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/sql"
 
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/logging"
-	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/actions"
+	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/operations"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/scd/repos"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/sqlstore"
 	"github.com/interuss/dss/pkg/store/params"
@@ -51,6 +51,6 @@ func Init(ctx context.Context, logger *zap.Logger, withCheckCron bool) (*sqlstor
 				version:                    version,
 			}
 		},
-		Registry: actions.Registry,
+		Registry: operations.Registry,
 	}, withCheckCron)
 }
diff --git a/pkg/store/store.go b/pkg/store/store.go
index 4b87b0a67..405ae8df2 100644
--- a/pkg/store/store.go
+++ b/pkg/store/store.go
@@ -60,11 +60,10 @@ func TransactWithResult[R any, ResultType any](ctx context.Context, store Store[
 	if err != nil {
 		return empty, err
 	}
-	resultType, ok := transactionResult.(ResultType)
-	if !ok {
-		return empty, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type %T, want %T", transactionResult, empty)
+	if resultType, ok := transactionResult.(ResultType); ok {
+		return resultType, nil
 	}
-	return resultType, nil
+	return empty, stacktrace.NewError("unexpected result type %T, want %T", transactionResult, empty)
 }
 
 // FuncOperation wraps a closure as an OperationRequest for gradual migration.
diff --git a/pkg/timestamp/timestamp.go b/pkg/timestamp/timestamp.go
index 28dbe9451..fe1329d46 100644
--- a/pkg/timestamp/timestamp.go
+++ b/pkg/timestamp/timestamp.go
@@ -8,13 +8,13 @@ import (
 	"github.com/interuss/stacktrace"
 )
 
-type timestampKey struct{}
+type key struct{}
 
-// requestTimestampFromContext returns the request timestamp from the context, or an error if the value is not present or if it is zero.
+// fromContext returns the request timestamp from the context, or an error if the value is not present or if it is zero.
 // The timestamp is set by the Middleware when a query is received then (on the receiver side) by the Raftstore when the query is applied.
 // It is then used for deterministic execution of time-dependent queries.
-func requestTimestampFromContext(ctx context.Context) (time.Time, error) {
-	timestamp, ok := ctx.Value(timestampKey{}).(time.Time)
+func fromContext(ctx context.Context) (time.Time, error) {
+	timestamp, ok := ctx.Value(key{}).(time.Time)
 	if !ok {
 		return time.Time{}, stacktrace.NewError("timestamp not found in context")
 	}
@@ -26,10 +26,10 @@ func requestTimestampFromContext(ctx context.Context) (time.Time, error) {
 	return timestamp, nil
 }
 
-// MustGetRequestTimestamp returns the request timestamp from the context and panics if it is not
+// MustFromContext returns the request timestamp from the context and panics if it is not
 // present or invalid, which is a programming error.
-func MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx context.Context) time.Time {
-	timestamp, err := requestTimestampFromContext(ctx)
+func MustFromContext(ctx context.Context) time.Time {
+	timestamp, err := fromContext(ctx)
 	if err != nil {
 		panic(err)
 	}
@@ -37,18 +37,18 @@ func MustGetRequestTimestamp(ctx context.Context) time.Time {
 	return timestamp
 }
 
-// WithRequestTimestamp returns a new context with the given timestamp.
-func WithRequestTimestamp(ctx context.Context, timestamp time.Time) context.Context {
-	return context.WithValue(ctx, timestampKey{}, timestamp)
+// NewContext returns a new context with the given timestamp.
+func NewContext(ctx context.Context, timestamp time.Time) context.Context {
+	return context.WithValue(ctx, key{}, timestamp)
 }
 
-// RequestTimestampMiddleware is an HTTP middleware that stamps each incoming
+// Middleware is an HTTP middleware that stamps each incoming
 // request with its received time. This timestamp is later used as the
 // timestamp of the Raft proposal, so that time-dependent queries
 // execute deterministically across nodes and contexts (catchup / restart etc.).
-func RequestTimestampMiddleware(next http.Handler) http.Handler {
+func Middleware(next http.Handler) http.Handler {
 	return http.HandlerFunc(func(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
-		ctx := WithRequestTimestamp(r.Context(), time.Now())
+		ctx := NewContext(r.Context(), time.Now())
 		next.ServeHTTP(w, r.WithContext(ctx))
 	})
 }